Luís de Camões’s Os Lusiadas at the Edward Worth Library
Os Lusiadas, written by Luís de Camões (c. 1524–80), is regarded to this day as the national poem of Portugal. It celebrates the voyage of Vasco da Gama (c. 1460–1524) to find a sea route from Portugal to India. The poem is structured in 10 cantos, with a total of 1,102 stanzas. In Canto I, Da Gama’s fleet is already midway through their voyage and the Greco-Roman pantheon are deciding what the fate of the explorers will be. The fleet is ambushed in Canto II by a plot set up by the god Bacchus, who wants to see the expedition fail. The goddess Venus intercedes on the fleet’s behalf, and they safely arrive in Melinde (today’s Malindi, located on the east coast of Kenya). Cantos III through V show Vasco da Gama reciting the history of Portugal to the sultan of Melinde, up to and including his fleet’s journey thus far. Having finished regaling the sultan of Melinde, in Canto VI, Da Gama’s fleet sails on for Calicut (modern day Kozhikode on India’s west coast), during which a sailor passes the time by telling a Portuguese legend, until a storm sent by Neptune at the request of Bacchus hits the fleet. They escape with the help of Venus, and view Calicut in the distance. The fleet finally reaches India in Canto VII, where they are greeted warmly by both the king and governor. Canto VIII has further interference from Bacchus, who convinces the local court that Da Gama is a threat. They hold Da Gama prisoner until he agrees to sell all the goods on board his ship. In Canto IX, the Portuguese fleet escapes a plot to attack them and sail back towards Portugal. Venus rewards them by preparing the Isle of Love, where they can rest and take nymphs as lovers. The final Canto X takes place on the Isle of Love, where Thetys, the nymph Da Gama has taken as a lover, predicts the future conquests of Portugal that have taken place up to Camões’s writing.[1]
Os Lusiadas was originally published in Lisbon in 1572. Mid 1500s Portugal was in a tenuous situation. The Portuguese Inquisition, which began in 1536, became truly dominant by 1552, and brought with it religious suppression and censorship.[2] In 1557, the death of King João III (1502–57) left a power vacuum to be filled by his then three year old grandson, Sebastião I (1554–78).[3] By 1580, Portugal was fully under Spanish rule.[4]
Luís de Camões witnessed much of this unrest throughout his life. Born around 1525, Camões died of the plague just months before Spain took control of Portugal in 1580. He published Os Lusiadas in 1572, dedicated to Sebastião I with the intention of teaching him how a good leader ought to act.[5] Sebastião I, who was 18 at the time of the publication, was known for being rash and unmanageable, with grand ambitions of converting Muslims to Christianity, particularly in Morocco.[6] As Camões was away from Portugal overseas for 17 years, a significant amount of content in Os Lusiadas mirrors his own life experiences.[7]
Luís de Camões and Richard Fanshawe (tr.), The Lusiad, or, Portugals Historicall Poem: written In the Portingall Language by Luis de Camoens; and Now newly put into English by Richard Fanshaw Esq; … (London, 1655). Portrait of Luís de Camões. Courtesy of Biblioctopus Rare Books.
Camões first went to Africa on a military expedition. He lost an eye during a battle at Ceuta, Morocco, as can be seen in his portrait.[8] He returned to Portugal for a time, but got in a street brawl with a court official in Lisbon and was imprisoned. In exchange for his freedom, he once again went overseas as part of the military, this time to India.[9] This is when he spent the bulk of his time away from Portugal, and also when he completed much of Os Lusiadas.[10] Tradition suggests that at some point during this time he was shipwrecked off the Mekong River, and swam back to shore with nothing other than his manuscript.[11]
When enough time had passed that Camões was allowed to return to Portugal, he joined the voyage of the governor of Mozambique who was travelling from India to Africa. Upon arrival at Mozambique, Camões found himself unable to pay his debt to the governor, and was forced to remain there.[12] Eventually, some friends paid off his debts and his passage home, enabling his ultimate return to Lisbon.[13]
Luís de Camões, Os Lusiadas do Grande Luis de Camoens. Principe da Poesia Heroica. Commentados pelo Licenciado Manoel Correa … (Lisbon, 1613), title page.
Camões’s patriotism is present throughout Os Lusiadas, in part in an attempt to gain patronage from Sebastião I.[14] Praise for Portugal’s exploration and adventurous spirit is weaved into the narrative. Explicit and stylistic references to Virgil are Camões’s way of aligning Portugal with Rome, as the strongest European power and as the truest followers of Christianity.[15] Portuguese civilization is openly represented in largely racist language as superior to African and Asian civilizations encountered in Da Gama’s expeditions, which Camões saw as a cultural justification for the Portuguese conquest of these regions.[16] That being said, Camões remains critical of and warns against what he sees as the dangers of imperialism, particularly greed and self-interest.[17]
Luís de Camões, Os Lusiadas do Grande Luis de Camoens. Principe da Poesia Heroica. Commentados pelo Licenciado Manoel Correa … (Lisbon, 1613), fol. 149v. Stanzas of original poem on left, Correa’s commentary surrounding on right.
The specific edition of Os Lusiadas that is in the Edward Worth Library is the 1613 Portuguese edition, with commentary done by Manoel Correa (d. 1653), who was a personal friend of Camões. By this time, Os Lusiadas had been translated into Italian, French, and Spanish, with three different translations into Spanish.[18] Correa’s self-described motivation for his added commentary is the desire to increase understanding of the great poem.[19] Correa’s commentary explains the meaning of Os Lusiadas, broken down by each stanza.
Luís de Camões, Os Lusiadas do Grande Luis de Camoens. Principe da Poesia Heroica. Commentados pelo Licenciado Manoel Correa … (Lisbon, 1613), Sig. †2v. Dedication to Rodrigo da Cunha.
With references to poetry’s true beauty coming only from the original words of the poet, Correa was likely pushing back against translations of Camões’s work into other languages.[20] Domingos Fernandez, the editor of the 1613 edition, certainly had political reasoning in mind. He was dissatisfied with what he saw as the theft of Portuguese culture by other nations, especially Spain, and wanted to reclaim Os Lusiadas as a Portuguese poem. He specifically states that none of the translations are able to fully capture the essence of the poem as the original Portuguese does.[21] The dedication of this edition to Rodrigo da Cunha (1577–1643) further reinforces the desire for a distinct Portuguese identity from Spain. Da Cunha, who was then a bishop and inquisitor in Lisbon, was known for being opposed to the incorporation of Portugal into the Kingdom of Spain. He supported the Restoration movement essentially since its inception.[22]
Luís de Camões and Richard Fanshawe (tr.), The Lusiad, or, Portugals Historicall Poem: written In the Portingall Language by Luis de Camoens; and Now newly put into English by Richard Fanshaw Esq; … (London, 1655), title page.
In addition to the commentated Portuguese Os Lusiadas, the Edward Worth Library possesses the first English translation of the work, which was authored by Sir Richard Fanshawe (1608–66). The Worth Library’s copy of Fanshawe’s Lusiad was purchased by Dr Worth (1676–1733) second hand; while Worth himself did not write in his books, an annotation on the title page suggests that another owner at some point purchased the book for 8 shillings and 6 pence. Before eventually making its way into Worth’s possession, this first edition copy was published in 1655.
By the 1650s, around 80 years after the original publication of Os Lusiadas, and about 40 years after Correa’s commentated edition, England was now the nation facing turmoil. The English Civil War began in 1642 between King Charles I (1600–49) and Parliament. King Charles was supported by royalists, who favoured an absolute monarchy, while the Parliamentary supporters called for the abolition of the monarchy and the House of Lords.[23] King Charles was executed in 1649 for treason, and his death brought about the declaration of the English Commonwealth, ruled by Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658). King Charles’s son, Charles II (1630–85), fled to France in 1651, seeking to avoid his own arrest and execution.[24]
Luís de Camões and Richard Fanshawe (tr.), The Lusiad, or, Portugals Historicall Poem: written In the Portingall Language by Luis de Camoens; and Now newly put into English by Richard Fanshaw Esq; … (London, 1655), Sig. A2r. Dedication to William Wentworth, second earl of Strafford.
In the same year, the last major battle of the English Civil War (the Battle of Worcester) took place. Writer Richard Fanshawe, who fought for the monarchy, was taken prisoner.[25] With the understanding that he would not publish any royalist political writings, Fanshawe was released to house arrest.[26] He served out his sentence at Tankersley Park, on the estate of his acquaintance William Wentworth (1626–95), second earl of Strafford.[27] During this period of his life, Fanshawe authored the first English translation of Os Lusiadas. Wentworth’s generosity in hosting Fanshawe earned him Fanshawe’s dedication of The Lusiad.[28]
Fanshawe’s translated Lusiad was published by Humphrey Moseley (c. 1604–61), a royalist bookseller who is considered the most significant publisher of his time.[29] Moseley’s prefaces in a variety of his other publications reveal that he considered himself a preserver of royalist texts, and his shop was the aptly named Prince’s Arms.[30] The publication of The Lusiad was unauthorised by Fanshawe, which explains the various misprints in the book.[31] ‘Lusiad’ is misspelled at the top of every page as ‘Luciad’. Stanzas 74-79 of Canto IV and Stanzas 4-33 and 59-64 of Canto X are numbered incorrectly. Without Fanshawe’s knowledge that it was going to press, he was not able to make final edits to his translation.
Richard Fanshawe, Original Letters Of his Excellency Sir Richard Fanshaw, During his Embassies in Spain and Portugal … (London, 1702), frontispiece portrait of Richard Fanshawe.
Because of the condition on Fanshawe’s house arrest that he not author any works in support of the monarchy, Fanshawe turned to translation as a way to disguise his own political opinions.[32] Camões’s dedication to Sebastião I, a young, inexperienced king, pre-figured Fanshawe’s feelings toward Charles II, who was at this time exiled and powerless.[33] In many cases, the translation prioritises the original metre and rhyme scheme over the textual meaning of words.[34] This allows Fanshawe to insert more of his own opinions into the work. Around 200 years later, Fanshawe was criticised for being ‘exceedingly unfaithful’ to Camões’s original.[35] Further complaints included that Fanshawe’s version was bold, harsh, and unpoetic.[36] However, commitment to the poetic was likely overshadowed by Fanshawe’s desire to express his political opinions.
Before Fanshawe’s Lusiad, England had no tradition of translating Portuguese works, suggesting that Fanshawe had specific motivations in choosing Camões for his project.[37] Some occurrences in Camões’s original clearly match the royalist agenda Fanshaw desired to share, making Os Lusiadas an appropriate choice of a project. The main occurrence of this similarity in views lies in Camões’s argument that rebelling against one’s own king is unnatural to the point of being unforgivable.[38] References to the divine right of kings to rule is also already present in the original.[39] These messages lent themselves easily to Fanshawe’s project of using translation to disguise his own blatantly monarchist ideals.
Luís de Camões and Richard Fanshawe (tr.), The Lusiad, or, Portugals Historicall Poem: written In the Portingall Language by Luis de Camoens; and Now newly put into English by Richard Fanshaw Esq; … (London, 1655). Portrait of Prince Henry of Portugal. Courtesy of Biblioctopus Rare Books.
Just as Camões portrayed Portugal as the successor to Rome, Fanshawe continues this lineage with his portrayal of England as the successor to Portugal (and, by extension, to Rome). This connection reinforces the understanding that the messages in a poem about Portugal are actually applicable to England. One way this connection is built is with the inclusion in Fanshawe’s Lusaid of the portrait of Henry the Navigator (1394–1460). While known now as a Portuguese prince and conquering explorer, Henry was half English and the grandson of the English Duke John of Gaunt (1340–99).[40] Even though Henry the Navigator is referenced in Os Lusiadas only a few times, Fanshawe felt he warranted an entire page at the start of the poem. This is probably because Fanshawe viewed Henry as representing an essential link between the history of Portugal and England.[41]
Camões’s themes in the original centred on the traits of a good king and a call for further imperialism. In various ways, Fanshawe co-opted these messages to build support for the British monarchy and disapproval for Cromwell. As Camões’s original celebrates new discoveries and modernity, Fanshawe uses this praise as an example of what Cromwell was doing wrong. Cromwell’s inaction in terms of trade was stalling opportunities for English merchants looking to expand in Asia.[42] The timely interest in trade routes belonging to Portugal in Os Lusiadas provided an easy way for Fanshawe to insert English desires into the Portuguese poem.[43] Fanshawe reinforces the public enthusiasm for support for trade in Asia by increasing references to spices in The Lusiad.[44] He embellishes the medicinal uses of spices in ways that Camões did not, in order to highlight the importance of access and the fact that Cromwell was letting the public down by not taking more action to expand international trade.
Key word choices also underline Fanshawe’s belief in the importance of the monarchy. Where Camões used different words for the various rulers encountered in Os Lusiadas based on the culture being described, Fanshawe refers to each ruler as ‘king’ without regard for cultural differentiation.[45] Furthermore, where Camões chose specific words that could all mean a variation of ‘country’, including words that could be translated individually as ‘land’, ‘earth’, ‘country’, ‘kingdom’, ‘homeland’, or ‘realm’, Fanshawe consistently chooses to translate each of these words as the monarchist inclined ‘kingdom’ and ‘realm’.[46]
It is possible that Fanshawe’s politically charged language choices were unintentional. In fact, before Fanshawe undertook the translation, he did not speak Portuguese; he apparently attempted the translation as an exercise to learn the language. However, he had a Spanish version at his disposal to aid the work, and he already spoke Spanish fluently.[47] This fact, combined with the royalist publisher and monarchist themes suggests that Fanshawe was very aware of the pro-monarchy spin he was giving to The Lusiad.
The Lusiad has always had political intent. It was originally written to inspire pride in Portugal’s history and accomplishments to gain favour with the young king. It was republished in 1613 with commentary in order to reassert a Portuguese identity in the midst of Spanish rule. It was then co-opted in 1642 in England to show support for the overthrown monarchy. The Lusiad presents an opportunity of learning through literature, both from the retelling of historic events in Portugal and from analysing the intentions at the time of publication. It shows how art can be used as a form of rebellion against an established power, and also as a perpetuation of the authority of a given power. With two copies of Os Lusiadas belonging to the Worth Library, Edward Worth’s desire for building a grand collection is revealed.
Luís de Camões, Os Lusiadas do Grande Luis de Camoens. Principe da Poesia Heroica. Commentados pelo Licenciado Manoel Correa … (Lisbon, 1613), fol. 38r, detail.
Text: Ms Jackie Beatty, M. Phil. in Public History and Cultural Heritage, Trinity College Dublin.
Sources
Camões, Luís de, Os Lusiadas do Grande Luis de Camoens. Principe da Poesia Heroica. Commentados pelo Licenciado Manoel Correa … (Lisbon, 1613).
Camões, Luís de, and Richard Fanshawe (tr.), The Lusiad, or, Portugals Historicall Poem: written In the Portingall Language by Luis de Camoens; and Now newly put into English by Richard Fanshaw Esq; … (London, 1655).
Camões, Luís de, and Richard Francis Burton (tr.), Os Lusiadas (The Lusiads): Englished by Richard Francis Burton … (London, 1880).
Camões, Luís de, and William Julius Mickle (tr.), The Lusiad; or, The Discovery of India. An Epic Poem. Translated from the Portuguese of Luis de Camoëns. With a Life of the Poet. By William Julius Mickle, 5th ed. (London, 1877).
Davidson, Peter, ‘Fanshawe, Sir Richard, first baronet (1608–1666), diplomat and translator’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Fanshawe, Richard, Original Letters Of his Excellency Sir Richard Fanshaw, During his Embassies in Spain and Portugal … (London, 1702).
Fontes, João Luís Inglês, Bispos e Arcebispos de Lisboa (Lisbon, 2018).
Gioia, Daniela, ‘Os Lusíadas in English: the real motivations behind the first English translation of Camões’s masterpiece’, Mots Palabras Words, 5, no. 1 (2004), 53–65.
Meihuizen, Nicholas, ‘Camões: Ambiguous Imperialist’, Portuguese Studies, 18, no. 2 (2002), 24–40.
Nowell, Charles E., and Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, ‘Henry the Navigator (prince of Portugal)’, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Ohlmeyer, Jane H., ‘English Civil Wars’, Encyclopædia Britannica.
Oliveira e Silva, John de, ‘Moving the Monarch: The Rhetoric of Persuasion in Camões’s Lusíadas’, Renaissance Quarterly, 53, no. 1 (2000), 735–768.
Oliveira e Silva, John de, ‘Reinventing the Nation: Luís De Camões’ Epic Burden’, Mediterranean Studies, 9, no. 1 (2000), 103–122.
Pierce, Frank, ‘Ancient History in “Os Lusíadas”’, Hispania, 57, no. 2 (1974), 220–230.
Seaward, Paul, ‘Charles II (1630–1685), king of England, Scotland, and Ireland’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Soon, Emily, ‘Of Spices and Spies: Paradise Lost, Os Lusíadas, and Richard Fanshawe’s Lusiad (1655)’, Modern Philology, 119, no. 4 (2022), 491–512.
Sousa Garcia, Tiago, ‘Englishing The Lusiad. Richard Fanshawe’s translation of Os Lusíadas and its relation with the contemporary English political context’, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) thesis (University of Kent and Universidade do Porto, 2016).
Sowerby, Tracy, and Joanna Craigwood (eds), Cultures of Diplomacy and Literary Writing (Oxford, 2019).
Torres, Sara V., ‘Oceanic Epic: The Translations of the Lusiads in the Global Renaissance’, Digital Philology: A Journal of Medieval Cultures, 8, no. 1 (2019), 105–122.
Walker, Roger M., ‘Sir Richard Fanshawe’s Lusiad and Manuel de Faria e Sousa’s Lusíadas Comentadas: New Documentary Evidence’, Portuguese Studies, 10, no. 1 (1994), 44–64.
Wilcher, Robert, ‘Moseley, Humphrey (bap. 1604, d. 1661), bookseller’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
WorldCat, ‘Search Results: Os Lusiadas Editions’, WorldCat.
[1] Camões, Luís de, and Richard Fanshawe (tr.), The Lusiad, or, Portugals Historicall Poem: written In the Portingall Language by Luis de Camoens; and Now newly put into English by Richard Fanshaw Esq; … (London, 1655).
[2] Oliveira e Silva, John de, ‘Reinventing the Nation: Luís De Camões’ Epic Burden’, Mediterranean Studies, 9, no. 1 (2000), 104.
[3] Ibid.
[4] Gioia, Daniela, ‘Os Lusiadas in English: the real motivations behind the first English translation of Camões’s masterpiece’, Mots Palabras Words, 5, no. 1 (2004), 55.
[5] Pierce, Frank, ‘Ancient History in “Os Lusíadas”’, Hispania, 57, no. 2 (1974), 220–230.
[6] Oliveira e Silva, John de, ‘Moving the Monarch: The Rhetoric of Persuasion in Camões’s Lusíadas’, Renaissance Quarterly, 53, no. 1 (2000), 738.
[7] Gioia, ‘Os Lusiadas in English’, 55.
[8] Ibid., 54.
[9] Ibid.
[10] Ibid.
[11] Ibid.
[12] Ibid.
[13] Ibid.
[14] Oliveira e Silva, ‘Moving the Monarch’, 739–740.
[15] Meihuizen, Nicholas, ‘Camões: Ambiguous Imperialist’, Portuguese Studies, 18, no. 2 (2002), 37–38.
[16] Ibid., 26.
[17] Ibid., 38.
[18] WorldCat, ‘Search Results: Os Lusiadas Editions’, WorldCat.
[19] Camões, Luís de, Os Lusiadas do Grande Luis de Camoens. Principe da Poesia Heroica. Commentados pelo Licenciado Manoel Correa (Lisbon, 1613), Sig. †5v.
[20] Camões, Luís de, and Richard Francis Burton (tr.), Os Lusiadas (The Lusiads): Englished by Richard Francis Burton … (London, 1880), p. xii.
[21] Sowerby, Tracy, and Joanna Craigwood (eds), Cultures of Diplomacy and Literary Writing (Oxford, 2019), p. 101.
[22] Fontes, João Luís Inglês, Bispos e Arcebispos de Lisboa (Lisbon, 2018), p. 649.
[23] Ohlmeyer, Jane H., ‘English Civil Wars’, Encyclopædia Britannica.
[24] Seaward, Paul, ‘Charles II (1630–1685), king of England, Scotland, and Ireland’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
[25] Davidson, Peter, ‘Fanshawe, Sir Richard, first baronet (1608–1666), diplomat and translator’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
[26] Ibid.
[27] Ibid.
[28] Camões and Fanshawe (tr.), The Lusiad, Sig. A2r.
[29] Sousa Garcia, Tiago, ‘Englishing The Lusiad. Richard Fanshawe’s translation of Os Lusíadas and its relation with the contemporary English political context’, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) thesis (University of Kent and Universidade do Porto, 2016), p. 57.
[30] Wilcher, Robert, ‘Moseley, Humphrey (bap. 1604, d. 1661), bookseller’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
[31] Fanshawe, Richard, Original Letters Of his Excellency Sir Richard Fanshaw, During his Embassies in Spain and Portugal … (London, 1702), pp 7–8.
[32] Gioia, ‘Os Lusiadas in English’, 64.
[33] Ibid.
[34] Ibid., 60.
[35] Camões, Luís de, and William Julius Mickle (tr.), The Lusiad; or, The Discovery of India. An Epic Poem. Translated from the Portuguese of Luis de Camoëns. With a Life of the Poet. By William Julius Mickle, 5th ed. (London, 1877), Dissertation on the Lusiad, and on Epic Poetry, pp xxv–xxxiii.
[36] Ibid.
[37] Gioia, ‘Os Lusiadas in English’, 53–54.
[38] Sousa Garcia, ‘Englishing The Lusiad’, 127.
[39] Ibid.
[40] Nowell, Charles E., and Fernandez-Armesto, Felipe, ‘Henry the Navigator (prince of Portugal)’, Encyclopædia Britannica.
[41] Sousa Garcia, ‘Englishing The Lusiad’, 86.
[42] Soon, Emily, ‘Of Spices and Spies: Paradise Lost, Os Lusíadas, and Richard Fanshawe’s Lusiad (1655)’, Modern Philology, 119, no. 4 (2022), 501.
[43] Torres, Sara V., ‘Oceanic Epic: The Translations of the Lusiads in the Global Renaissance’, Digital Philology: A Journal of Medieval Cultures, 8, no. 1 (2019), 117.
[44] Soon, ‘Of Spices and Spies’, 498–499.
[45] Sousa Garcia, ‘Englishing The Lusiad’, 109.
[46] Ibid.
[47] Walker, Roger M., ‘Sir Richard Fanshawe’s Lusiad and Manuel de Faria e Sousa’s Lusíadas Comentadas: New Documentary Evidence’, Portuguese Studies, 10, no. 1 (1994), 59.